For the invasion of Russia, codenamed Operation Barbarossa, the German army assembled some three million men, divided into a total of 105 infantry divisions and 32 Panzer divisions. There were 3,332 tanks, over 7,000 artillery pieces, 60,000 motor vehicles, and 625,000 horses. This force was divided among three German army groups: Army Group North, under the command of Field Marshal Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb, had assembled its forces in East Prussia on the Lithuanian border. His   Panzer Group  , which formed the main spearhead of the advance on Leningrad, consisted of 812 tanks. These were divided among the 1st, 6th, and 8th Panzer Divisions, the 3rd and 36th Motorized Infantry Divisions, and the SS Motorized Division   “Totenkopf ,” which  formed  the reserve of the  Panzer Group .

Within the strong forces of Army Group North, the   mountain infantry were to   play a key role in the battle in the East. For the invasion, the 2nd and 3rd Mountain Divisions, which were part of the   Mountain Corps  , were assigned to the   Norwegian Mountain Corps  .

In the early morning of June 22, 1941, the Mountain Infantry attacked Russia, following the leading lines of the powerful   Panzerwaffe.   On the Northern Front, the terrain was terrible: swampland, barren rocky terrain, and vast, dark forests. The area was considered so inhospitable that even the local Finns couldn’t believe they were operating in such a hostile place. Yet despite the horrific conditions and long marches, they broke through the Soviet defenses and reached the Liza River in July 1941. By this time, the Russians had been completely smashed by the force and precision of German shellfire, as well as by the skillful deployment of the   Mountain Infantry   assault troops.

Despite the rapid advance of the German soldiers in Russia, the Red Army remained a mystery to him. There was little information about the country they were invading, and all relevant information about the terrain and climate was also lacking. He viewed the Russians simply as a Slavic people, an inferior race. Propaganda had conclusively proven that all Russians lived in poverty and their outdated army was completely unprepared for war. Even when the German soldiers invaded Russia in the summer months of 1941, they were completely unaware of the immense task they faced in destroying the enemy. Although the average German found a tremendous contrast between his own country and the one he was fighting in, they were completely unprepared for the unimaginable size and distance they had to cover. The soldiers were amazed by the vast forests, the extensive marshlands, and the many rivers that constantly flooded. They were also surprised that what little information they had was often incorrect. The roads were often not marked on the maps, and if they were lucky enough to come across them, they were in such poor condition that military traffic often reduced them to little more than dirt tracks.

In the summer of 1941, mountain infantry   troops invaded the Soviet Union with Army Group North. Within the strong forces of Army Group North, the  mountain infantry played a key role in the Battle of the East. For the invasion, the 2nd and 3rd Mountain Divisions, which were part of the  Mountain Corps  , were assigned to the   Norwegian Mountain Corps  .

The roads in Russia were in appalling condition and often couldn’t handle the heavy traffic. After a heavy downpour, the roads, which were essentially dirt tracks, would turn into swamps, even in the summer in the north. Here, in this photo,  mountain troops trudge  through the mud toward the front with their pack animals hauling supplies.

From a hill and   in the mountains,   officers can be seen observing enemy positions. Their position suggests that there is some danger from enemy fire. The officer in the leather coat observes the forward movement of his troops through a 6×30 binocular.

Another major contrast the German soldiers experienced on their march through Russia was the climatic conditions. There were extreme temperature differences: the bitter cold sometimes dropped to minus thirty or even forty degrees Celsius, and in the summer, unbearable heat prevailed. When the first snow showers arrived in October 1941, the German soldiers were completely unprepared for the Russian winter. Sleet and cold, driving rain turned the Russian countryside into a swamp, making roads and fields virtually impassable. The lack of winter clothing also caused the soldiers great concern, as they knew that the winter would cause them greater problems than the Russians themselves.

Living and fighting in winter on the Eastern Front was very difficult, even for the well-trained men of the mountain infantry. The distances the soldiers had to cover were enormous. The most popular means of transport was the sled. Accommodation in shelters was also a major problem, and many of them learned to build native-style shelters and igloos out of branches. Although these mountain infantry suffered heavy losses in the winter of 1941, they stubbornly held their ground, and by early 1942, a stalemate had developed. Only minor skirmishes occurred until spring as both sides rebuilt their strength.

In the spring of 1942, the 7th Mountain Division was deployed far to the north as the Soviets launched their new offensive. For weeks and months, the mountain troops fought a fierce battle to prevent the Soviets from cutting off their advance. A series of fierce Russian attacks almost succeeded, but bad weather once again thwarted the Red Army’s victory. By the time the weather improved, the   mountain troops had   brought in additional reserves and equipment. The Russian offensive failed, and the mountain troops were able to patrol the northern sector for the next two years, until 1944.

In the summer of 1944, the Red Army launched another offensive on the Northern Front. The attack was so fierce that the Finns concluded a separate peace with the Russians in September 1944. In view of the threat of isolation, all German troops, including the   mountain infantry  , were withdrawn through Lapland to Norway. At the same time, they fought against Norwegian troops, who had now turned against them.

A 2 cm Flak 30 gun towers over the Baltic coast. This   anti-aircraft gun weighed approximately 770 kg and had an effective range of 2,200 meters against air targets.   These guns were used by light anti-aircraft companies of the mountain infantry and served to protect mountain infantry and Wehrmacht troops from enemy air attacks. They could also be used with great effect for ground defense.

Southern Front

On the Southern Front, the Mountain Infantry was involved in more extensive fighting against the Red Army than on the Northern Front. In June 1941, the 1st and 4th Mountain Divisions were involved in the rapid advances following the invasion of Russia. The soldiers covered approximately 56 kilometers a day, maintaining this remarkable advance day after day, week after week. In those early days, morale was high. They broke through the Stalin Line and launched fierce attacks deep into enemy territory. They also participated in the encirclement of the Uman Pocket, in which 100,000 Red Army soldiers were taken prisoner.  The Mountain Corps alone   took 22,000 prisoners. This was a major victory in itself, and in the following weeks and months, the Mountain Infantry pushed further east toward Stalino, which was captured in November 1941. They then advanced to positions on the Mius River, where winter was rapidly approaching.

In July 1942, the   mountain infantry   participated in the advance into the Caucasus. Here, the soldiers were able to demonstrate their alpine skills and climb some of the highest peaks in the Caucasus. On Mount Elbrus, they succeeded in raising the German national flag. At the end of 1942, with Stalingrad on the brink of fall, the 1st and 4th Mountain Divisions were withdrawn and narrowly escaped the Red Flood. Both divisions halted at the Kuban bridgehead, where they fought in mosquito-infested swampland until the fall of 1943.

Three photographs taken from the same slide show the SS Division   Nord   in action against enemy positions in a wooded area. The division was deployed along the Norwegian-Finnish border and began hostilities against the Russians in June 1941 as part of Operation Arctic Fox. In the first two days of the invasion,  Nord suffered  300 dead and 400 wounded in a battle near Salla against strong Russian forces .

At the end of the year, the 5th Mountain Division was withdrawn from the Leningrad sector, where it was heavily deployed on the Southern Front. Despite the reinforcement of German forces in the south, the growing strength of the Soviet Army could not be halted. By early 1944, over four million Russian soldiers were thrown against the exhausted troops. Even the elite units of the Waffen-SS mountain divisions could not counter the rapid enemy onslaught. In mid-May, the Red Army overran Crimea and advanced relentlessly toward the Carpathian Mountains.

The end in the East seemed imminent. Hitler took drastic measures to prevent the Russians from invading the Hungarian oil fields. To bear the brunt of this massive defensive strategy, the 1st Mountain Division, now subordinate to elements of the 2nd Panzer Army, participated in the offensive in the Lake Platt area.

The attack began in earnest on March 5, 1944, but the spring thaw turned the landscape into a sea of mud, and almost immediately the troops of the 2nd Panzer Army became bogged down in the mire. The   mountain troops  were still able to move with their pack animals and made good progress for the first ten days. But then their advance came to a halt. On the crumbling German front, only a few units, including the 1st Mountain Division and the 13th  Waffen Mountain Division of the SS “Handschar  ,” composed mainly of Bosnian Muslims, faced a formidable Russian army of some 40 divisions. Under the devastating effect of the Russian troops and their artillery, both the 2nd Panzer Army and the 6th SS Panzer Army were forced to retreat. While the bulk of the German forces retreated under a firestorm, the task of the 1st Mountain Division was to repel the Soviet forces while the remnants of the Wehrmacht fought their way west.

Mountain troops   of the new SS Division   North   during operations in the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941. A motorcycle platoon follows a Panzer II toward the front, watched by soldiers at the roadside. SS Combat Group   North   was formed in February 1941 from two SS   Totenkopf   regiments. The designation changed to SS Division   North in September 1941   , to SS   Mountain  Division   North in September 1942  , and finally to 6th SS   Mountain  Division   North.

Northern troops   in action with their 3.7 cm PaK 35/36. Although the PaK 35/36 no longer met their operational requirements in light of the increasing anti-tank defenses, they were still capable of inflicting heavy damage on the enemy.

A   Nord   MG34 machine gun crew with their weapon mounted on a Lafette 34 continuous fire mount with an optical sight. Note the special pads on the front of the tripod. These were used specifically when the weapon was carried on the wearer’s back. The pads provided the wearer with reasonable comfort.

Here,  mountain troops are holding   a morning formation in a Russian village. They are all wearing the standard   Mountain Infantry uniform   . After their commander briefs his men, the troops disperse and prepare for their daily mission in the snow. First, the soldiers put on their winter camouflage jackets and standard field gear.

Three photos show a   mountain infantryman   wearing the special woolen cap under the   mountain cap  . As these photos vividly demonstrate, soldiers typically wore two caps in the extreme Arctic conditions. One was worn over the head to protect the ears and face, the other around the neck. The cap’s primary function was to keep the head warm while wearing the steel helmet, which soldiers referred to as a kind of “freezer box” during winter operations in the East. Along with the cap, soldiers wore either a white winter camouflage smock or the standard coat with insulated two-finger mittens.

Five photographs show a ski patrol of the SS Division   Nord   during an operation in Army Group North in the winter of 1942. All are wearing early winter camouflage jackets over their uniforms and fur-covered headgear. The fur-covered hats were issued to German troops in the east in the winter of 1942. Most of the men carry the Kar98k repeating rifle over their shoulders, which was issued to all infantrymen during the war. Particularly interesting are the colored friend-or-foe identification stripes on both sleeves of many of the ski soldiers.

A mountain infantry awards ceremony is taking place in a Russian village     . The soldier on the left, wearing a whitewashed M35 steel helmet, holds the rank of   first lieutenant   and congratulates a   lieutenant   on receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class.

Three mountain soldiers pause on their march after a ski patrol. During the snowy months in Russia, especially during the second winter, they wore the new, practical, loose-fitting hooded snow overalls, which were specifically designed to be worn over multiple layers of clothing, including the overcoat. These men are wearing thick woolen gloves and a woolen hat. Two of the men are wearing tinted ski goggles over their mountaineering hats   .   They are armed with the 7.92 mm Mauser Gew33/40 rifle, which was slightly shorter than the standard Kar98k carbine.

Mountain infantry soldiers   used sleds to travel from one sector of the front to another. Even in 1942, the bulk of the pulling power within the regiments of the infantry divisions consisted primarily of draft animals. As a result, hundreds of thousands of horses died either in combat, succumbed to extreme weather conditions, lack of fodder, or were eaten by starving soldiers.

During operations on the Eastern Front in 1942, mountain troops approach    a snow-covered forest. Signs of enemy movement were often easier to detect in the snow, and an alert patrol could quickly pinpoint their enemy’s location based on fresh footprints and snow slashed from bushes and other fallen leaves.

A mountain infantryman on a ski patrol. He carries the standard   mountain rucksack   , which appears to be heavily laden with provisions. For camouflage in the snow, he wears a snowsuit. The snowsuit was large and bulky and was worn without a belt over the uniform and all other equipment. Although it   was produced in large numbers for the mountain infantrymen,   this garment proved not as practical as other camouflage jackets, as it restricted the wearer’s freedom of movement.

A squad with an MG34 machine gun advances through a wooded area toward a new firing position. They wear two-piece snow suits and whitewashed M35 steel helmets. When it snowed, the soldiers had to paint their steel helmets white. During the first winter of 1941, many soldiers initially chose not to apply white camouflage to their steel helmets, often leaving them field gray. However, some tried to find a way to blend in with the terrain. Some soldiers found chalk very useful and crudely applied it to the entire helmet. However, the most common form of winter camouflage became whitewashed paint.

Exhausted infantrymen rest in a wooded area, trying to sleep in the snow after likely enduring many days of fierce fighting against the growing Russian resistance. The troops are forced to shelter themselves from the bitter temperatures with   tarpaulins  . The leaves of the surrounding pines also served as bedding to keep the men dry. There was little respite for the German troops on the Eastern Front—if the Red Army let up even briefly, the subzero temperatures certainly didn’t.

Supply vehicles of the mountain infantry and Wehrmacht troops at the front were stranded on a congested road. During the winter on the Eastern Front, wheeled transport vehicles were often immobilized due to the extreme weather conditions. This hampered supply to the front and occasionally brought the advance to a halt.

For local defense, an MG34 machine gun is mounted on a tripod anti-aircraft mount. Throughout the war, support units were equipped with light machine guns for self-defense and were regularly able to repel low-flying enemy aircraft. The   mountain   machine gunner wears the animal fur coat issued in winter to German troops driving vehicles or on guard duty on the Eastern Front.

A well-camouflaged Panzer III has stopped on a busy road. A crew member observes a long column of panje wagons passing by. These troops belong to the   SS Mountain Division   North   and  are most likely transporting divisional rations and equipment to the front-line troops.

Two photos show two different artillery observation posts using the 6×30 Sf.14Z   scissor telescope   searching for enemy targets. Each artillery battery had an observation post on the front line. However, in extreme Arctic conditions, the lenses sometimes froze over, making monitoring the front lines difficult.

Two consecutive photographs show a 7.5 cm Geb36 gun being loaded and fired by its well-trained crew. Firing an artillery piece in the snow could often be problematic for the gun crew. The recoil regularly drove the weapon deep into the snow, often resulting in inaccurate firing. For this reason, some gun crews modified their 7.5 cm Geb36 gun by removing the wheels and replacing them with sturdy gun tracks.

Two Panzer IIs   passed engineers of the SS Mountain Division North in 1942.   The area was completely devastated by heavy artillery and air raids. While this type of tactical bombardment served the Germans well, the lack of shelter in winter was often problematic for the soldiers.

Soldiers of the   SS Mountain   Division   North   stand next to two stationary Panzer II tanks during an operation on the Kestenga Front. The soldier standing to the left of the motorcyclist, wearing the special motorcycle protective suit, appears to be armed with a captured Russian 7.62 mm Mosin-Nagant M1891/30 rifle. The Germans designated this Soviet weapon as the Gew252(r).

A convoy of supply trucks carrying men and equipment has stopped along a road. Some mountain troops have gotten out of their vehicles and are standing near a stream. It is more than likely that this was a temporary stop, and the convoy then resumed its journey.

Soldiers of the 6th SS Division North in one of the numerous bunkers along the stagnant front. Although these bunkers didn’t offer the men much protection from enemy fire, they did offer them sufficient shelter from the icy elements.

A march in the summer of 1943 in Army Group South. The pack animals are heavily laden, and some are harnessed with baskets, which the   mountain infantry  commonly used to transport their food and other vital supplies in some of the most inhospitable places on the Eastern Front.

An interesting photo shows a   mountain artillery unit   on a long march. One of the pack animals is hauling a 7.5 cm GebG36, the standard gun of the mountain infantry during the war in the East.

In addition to hauling ammunition, the pack animals were also ideal for transporting artillery. In this photo, pack leaders and their animals are resting before continuing their march. A 7.5 cm GebG36 was disassembled into eight loads for transport. Note the mule carrying the spoked wheels for the gun.

Two mountain infantry motorcyclists can be seen with their BMW motorcycles in a stream, cleaning their dusty vehicles. During this time of war, many motorcyclists were used for communications to various sectors of the front. Because motorcycles were considered versatile machines, they could move quickly through the terrain and capture important information.

Two squad leaders stand with their unit on a street. The squad leader wears an M35 steel helmet and 6×30 field binoculars. He carries MP38/40 1st Model magazine pouches for his MP38/40 submachine gun. By 1941, the MP38/40 was produced in large numbers and issued to squad leaders, non-commissioned officers, and front-line officers.

A   mountain   FlaK 30 in an elevated position. The usual shield has been removed, presumably to reduce weight. Shields were normally used when the weapon was used against ground targets.

A group of mountain troops pushes an ambulance up a steep slope. It’s unlikely that any of these men are medical personnel, except for one wearing a white jumpsuit. Normally, all paramedics wear the Red Cross on a white armband.

Outside in a field, the crew of a 7.5 cm GebG36 can be seen with its gun raised. The   mountain crew   wears the silver   Jägermützenabzeichen ( hunter cap badge)   with three oak leaves and an acorn, as    worn by Jäger divisions .

Three photos show a   mountain infantryman   aiming his Karabiner 98K rifle. He is wearing a camouflage windbreaker similar in design to the Waffen-SS camouflage jacket. It was made of waterproof fabric, and he is seen here with the white side facing out. The back of the jacket was printed in three colors, similar to the Wehrmacht’s flak jacket.

Five photos show   mountain troops   in action on the Eastern Front. Like many   mountain infantry units   during winter operations, they pulled sleds loaded with supplies using draft animals. Although the   mountain infantry   continued to fight hard for their positions, they were constantly exposed to heavy shelling by entire divisions of Soviet artillery. Difficult terrain also hampered communication between units, especially in the snow. One of the fastest and most effective methods of moving from one sector of the front to another was by ski or sled.

A ski patrol moves toward a hill. Shelter was often in short supply for the soldiers, especially during the evacuation of a position. Often, the soldiers had to not only build various shelters in the snow to withstand the arctic temperatures but also protect themselves from enemy fire.

Two commanders study a map during Army Group South’s defensive operations. The officer on the right is wearing a different fur coat made of animal skin. His comrade is wearing the familiar white camouflage jacket and is clearly recognizable by the colored identification stripe on his sleeve.

A ski patrol prepares to depart. The two ski soldiers closest to the camera are wearing a shapeless two-piece snowsuit consisting of a snow jacket and matching pants. The jacket is buttoned up the front with white lacquered buttons. It has a large white hood that can be easily pulled over the steel helmet. The hood not only covers the headgear, if it isn’t already covered with a winter blanket, but also protects the neck and ears. The pants are also shapeless and are tucked into the boots.

Mountain troops   march in close formation through the snow. Without their white camouflage jackets, these soldiers would undoubtedly have been vulnerable to enemy air attacks. This close formation was frequently used by the   mountain infantry  , especially in arctic weather conditions, as it allowed the soldiers to remain in close proximity to one another, especially in poor visibility.

Ski troops transport an injured comrade on a sled to a makeshift field hospital. Living and fighting in subzero temperatures was very hard for the Germans, even for hardened veterans spending their second winter in Russia. In many areas of northern Russia, wheels were mostly useless in the trackless wildernesses and forests, and the sled was often the most effective means of transport.

Mountain soldiers advance along a road with draft animals. A supply vehicle drives past the column.

Mule-drawn If.8 infantry carts of the 1st  Mountain  Division cross a stream. The reluctant bull harnessed to the cart can be seen. The 1st  Mountain  Division fought on the southern flank of the Eastern Front, fighting at Kiev, Stalino, the Dnieper Crossing, and Kharkov before advancing into the Caucasus during Operation   Blue  . After the defeat at Stalingrad, it spent time in Greece and Serbia before withdrawing to Austria and eventually surrendering.

Tired and exhausted   mountain troops   retreating through southern Russia in the late summer of 1943. After the defeat at Stalingrad, the 1st and 4th Mountain Divisions were withdrawn and narrowly escaped the Red Flood. Both divisions halted at the Kuban bridgehead, where they fought in mosquito-infested swampland until the fall of 1943.

Two photographs depict the terrible road conditions on the Eastern Front in the autumn of 1943. Two vehicles and a motorcyclist from the 1st  Mountain  Division struggle through the mud after a heavy downpour. Roads were few in the Soviet Union, and cross-country travel often presented its own problems. Combined with the sheer size of the country, the Russian weather presented the invaders with significantly greater challenges than on any other front during the war.

Donkey drivers rest with their animals. One can easily imagine the enormous distances these animals and their drivers had to cover. Typical Russian steppes consisted of nothing but vast, flat expanses as far as the eye could see. Due to the visible landmarks, units were often unable to determine their exact location.

A long column of mule drivers and their animals trudge along a muddy road, past stationary vehicles and a motorcycle that appears to have a mechanical problem. The mules were versatile and robust animals and often had to endure painful long marches with little provisions. Note the special tarpaulins used to protect the loads.